Current status of 3D-printed human ossicles: a systematic review

Most models embedded ossicles in healthy temporal-bones (<i>n</i> = 46), with fewer pathological (<i>n</i> = 6) or stand-alone models (<i>n</i> = 13). Stapes was often absent or poorly reproduced, whereas malleus and incus were usually recognizable. Higher realism was associated with micro-CT or cone-beam-CT combined with stereolithography or PolyJet-printing.

These photopolymer-based technologies allowed ossicle mobility in selected models. However, reporting of replication methods and anatomical accuracy was often limited, constraining deeper comparison between studies.</p> <p>Accurate ossicle replication is emerging but depends on optimization of imaging, processing, and 3D-printing. Standardized reporting is needed to improve comparison between methods and support use in training and reconstruction.</p>