Table 1_Socioeconomic, institutional, environmental, and demographic determinants of population health in 90 developing countries: panel data evidence.docx

Population health is measured through three complementary indicators—life expectancy, infant mortality, and maternal mortality—to capture broader survival conditions, early-life vulnerability, and maternal health risks.

Using panel data for 90 developing countries from 2002 to 2018, the study estimates country fixed-effects models and uses Driscoll–Kraay standard errors to strengthen inference in the presence of heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and cross-sectional dependence. Additional robustness checks are conducted using Panel-Corrected Standard Errors, Feasible Generalized Least Squares, and winsorized specifications. The results show that human capital, government effectiveness, and population density are consistently associated with higher life expectancy and lower infant and maternal mortality, and that these coefficient signs remain stable across robustness checks.